## Polar Form of complex numbers-

In the previous post, we discussed the basics of complex numbers.This is the second and final post on the complex numbers.here we shall discuss, polar form of complex numbers
We consider complex numbers like vectors and every vector must have some magnitude and a certain direction. If we write a complex number in form of a point in the Cartesian plane/ordered a pair like x+iy=(x,y) then the distance of this point from the origin (0,0) is equal to the magnitude of our complex number while the angle it’s making with x-axis will show it’s direction.

In the above right triangle, using Pythagoras theorem Read more

## Complex Numbers-

Complex numbers come into existence when the square of a number is negative because we know it very well that the square of a number will always be positive doesn’t matter whether the number is positive or negative.

In cases like   or   here, if we solve, we find the square of x=-1. We say that x is not real here. Generally, these types of cases are considered as Complex numbers. Complex numbers were first observed by mathematician Girolamo Cardano (1501-1575). In his book Ars Magna, he discussed the mechanics of complex numbers in details and thus he started Complex Algebra.

### Standard form of Complex Numbers-

Complex numbers are defined as expressions of the form a + ib where a,b R & i =

It is denoted by Z  i.e. z= a + ib.

‘a’  is called as real part of z= (Re z)

and ‘b’ is called as imaginary part of z =(Im z).

i or IOTA- iota is a unique symbol. it’s the ninth letter of Latin alphabet. It’s used to denote imaginary numbers whose square root is -1.

## Principle of Mathematical Induction:-

we know that the first positive even integer is 2 = 2 1
the second positive even integer is 4 =

the third positive even integer is 6 = 23
the fourth positive even integer is 8 = 24

………………………………………………….

If we move using the same pattern then nth positive integer=2n Read more

## Permutations and Combinations-algebra tutors

### Permutations and Combinations(part-2)

In my previous post, we discussed the fundamental principle of counting and various methods of permutations. In this post, I shall discuss combinations in details.

Meaning of Combination- If we are given a set of objects and we want to select a few objects out of this set, then we can do it by many different ways. These ways are known as combinations.
Example- If we are given three balls marked as B, W and R and we want to select two balls then we can select like this- BW, BR, WR.

These are known as the combination of this selection.

Combination of n different objects taken r at a time when repetition is not allowed– If repetition is not allowed the number of ways of selecting r objects out of a group of n objects is called

=

In latest notation system   is also known as C(n;r) or

Properties of  – It’s a very useful and interesting Mathematical tool. It has following properties.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)      known as Pascal’s law

(iv) r.

(v)

(vi) If n is even then we should put r=n/2 for maximum value of   and if n is odd then   is greatest when r=

(vii) In the expansions of  if we put x=1 then

## Definite Integration

In the previous post, we discussed indefinite integration. Now we shall discuss definite integration

► Definite Integration- We already know that      this c here is an integral constant. we are not sure about its value. This c is the reason we call this process indefinite integration. But suppose we do our integration between certain limits like:-

here a lower limit while b higher limit

=g(b)-g(a)

You can clearly see that this function is independent of ‘c’. Means we can be sure about its value so this type of integration is called  Definite Integration.

►Definite Integration of a function f(x) is possible in [a,b] if f(x) is continuous in the given interval

►If f(x), the integrand, is not continuous for a given value of x then it doesn’t mean that g(x), the integral, is also discontinuous for that value of x.

► Definite integration of a function between given limits like             Algebraic sum of areas bounded by the given curve f(x) and given lines x=a and x=b. That’s why the answer for definite integration problems is a single number.

► If  that shows a few things:-

(i) The lines between which area is bounded are co-incident(a=b)

(ii) Area covered above the x-axis=Area covered below the x-axis that means positive part of area and negative part of area is equal

(iii) there must be at least one solution/root to f(x) between x=a and x=b(this is something we study in ROLE’S THEOREM in detail)

► If given function f(x) is not continuous at x=c then we should write

► If given function f(x) > or <0 in any given interval (a,b) then   >0 or <0 in given interval (a,b)

► If given function f(x)  g(x) in the given interval (a,b) then

in the given interval

► If we integrate the given function f(x) in the given interval (a,b) then

Some More Properties of Definite Integration:- Read more

## Indefinite Integration

After a long series on differentiation and ‘Application of derivatives‘, we shall now discuss Indefinite Integration. It consists of two different words indefinite and integration.
First of all, we shall learn about Integration.

Integration is the reverse process of differentiation so we can also call it as antiderivative. There is one more name for it, that is Primitive.
If f & g are functions of x such that g'(x) = f(x) then the function g is called a Primitive Or Antiderivative Or Integral of  f(x) w.r.t. x and is written symbolically as:-

If

then       here c is just an arbitrary constant. Value of c is not definite that’s why we call it Indefinite Integration.

Techniques  Of  Integration-: There are a few important techniques used to solve problems based on integration

(i) Substitution or  Change of Independent Variable- If the derivative of a function is given in the question, then we should use the method of substitution to integrate that question. Read more

## Increasing and Decreasing Functions

### Increasing and decreasing functions

This is my third post in the series of “Applications of derivatives”. The previous two were based on “Tangent and Normal” and “Maxima and Minima”.In this post, we shall learn about increasing and decreasing functions. That is one more application of derivatives.

Increasing and Decreasing Functions- We shall first learn about increasing functions

Increasing Function-

(a) Strictly increasing function- A function f (x) is said to be a strictly increasing function on (a, b) if x1< x2  f(x1) < f (x2) for all xl, x2(a, b).Thus, f(x) is strictly increasing on (a, b) if the values of f(x) increase with the increase in the values of x.Refer to the graph in below-given figure Read more

## IB Mathematics HL SL-Maxima and Minima

In my previous post, we discussed how to find the equation of tangents and normal to a curve. There are a few more  Applications of Derivatives in IB Mathematics HL SL, ‘Maxima and Minima’ is one of them.

Maxima and Minima:-

1. A function f(x) is said to have a maximum at x = a if f(a) is greater than every other value assumed by f(x) in the immediate neighbourhood of x = a. Symbolically

gives maxima for a sufficiently small positive h.

Similarly, a function f(x) is said to have a minimum value at x = b if f(b) is least than every other value assumed by f(x) in the immediate neighbourhood at x = b. Symbolically

If x = b gives minima for a sufficiently small positive h.

## Mathematics-

In my previous post, we discussed how to find the derivative of different types of functions as well as the geometrical meaning of differentiation. Here we are discussing  Applications of Derivatives in IB Mathematics
There are many different fields for the Applications of Derivatives. We shall discuss a few of them-

Slope and Equation of tangents to a curve- If We draw a tangent to a curve y=f(x) at a given point   , then

The gradient of the curve at given point=the gradient of the tangent line  at given  point

and we already discussed that slope or gradient of the tangent at given point

m=

=()

Finally to find the equation of tangent we use the slope-point form of equation

The major part of this concept is also discussed in the previous post. We should also remember following points while solving these types of questions.

(i) If two lines are parallel to each other, their slopes are always equal
i.e
(ii) If two lines are perpendicular to each other, the product of their  slopes is always -1

(iii) If a line is passing through two points    and    then, slope of the line

# Limit of a function

Limit of a function f(x) is said to exist as,  when

finite quantity.

Fundamental Theorems On Limits :

Let    &     If l & m exists then :

(i) f (x) ± g (x) = l ± m

(ii) f(x). g(x) = l. m

(iii)   provided

(iv)    where k is a constant.

(v)   provided f is continuous at        g (x) = m

Standard Limits :

(a)  and Where x is measured in radians

(b)  both are equal to e

(c) then this will show that

(d)  and   (a finite quantity) then

where z=

(e)  where a>0. In particular

Indeterminant Forms:

etc are considered to be indeterminant values

We cannot plot  on the paper. Infinityis a symbol & not a number. It does not obey the laws of elementary algebra.

+=

×

(a/) = 0 if a is finite v is not defined

a b =0,if & only if a = 0 or b = 0  and  a & b are finite.

Expansion of function like Binomial expansion, exponential & logarithmic expansion, expansion of sinx , cosx , tanx should be remembered by heart & are given below:

(i)  ex =1+x/1!+x3/3!+x4/4!……

(ii)  ax=1+(xloga)/1!+ (xloga)2/2!+ (xloga)3/3!+ (xloga)4/4!+……….where a > 0

(iii)   ln(1-x)=x-x2/2+x3/3-x4/4……….    where -1 < x  1

(iv)  ln(1-x)=-x-x2/2-x3/3-x4/4……….     where  -1 x < 1

(v )

(vi)

(v)

In next post, I will discuss various types of limit problems, their solutions and L’ Hospital’s rule.In the meantime, you can solve these basic questions from this PDF. This PDF is for beginners only. I will post difficult and higher level questions in the next post on this topic

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